Introduction to Information Technology Old Questions 2080 - Bsc.Csit

System software vs Application software

Types of system software

Operating Systems (OS):

The OS is the most critical piece of system software. It acts as an intermediary between the hardware and the user, managing resources and providing a platform for other software to run. Examples: Windows, macOS, Linux, Android, iOS.

Device Drivers:

Device drivers are specialized programs that enable the operating system to communicate with and control hardware devices. They act as translators, ensuring that the OS and hardware can work seamlessly together. Examples: Graphics drivers, printer drivers, network interface drivers.

Utilities:

Utilities are tools designed to perform specific tasks related to system maintenance, optimization, and troubleshooting. They assist in managing and monitoring the computer system. Examples: Antivirus Software, Disk Cleanup Tools, Backup Utilities, System Optimization Tools, etc.

Firmware:

Firmware is a type of software that is permanently programmed into hardware devices during the manufacturing process. It provides low-level control for the device and is stored in non-volatile memory. Examples: BIOS/UEFI firmware in a computer’s motherboard, and firmware in embedded systems like routers and printers.

Middleware:

Middleware serves as a bridge between application software and the operating system. It facilitates communication and data exchange between different software applications. Examples: Database management systems, and communication middleware.

Memory hierarchy is a concept that is necessary for the CPU to be able to manipulate data.

Computer memory is classified in the below hierarchy.

Benefits of computer network

Resource Sharing: Computer networks allow for the sharing of hardware resources like printers, scanners, and storage devices, optimizing resource utilization.

Data Sharing: Users can easily share files and data across the network, promoting collaboration and efficient communication within an organization.

Cost Efficiency: Sharing resources reduces the need for duplicate equipment, resulting in cost savings. Centralized management is also more cost-effective.

Reliability: Redundancy in network design ensures reliability. If one part of the network fails, alternative routes or resources can be utilized to maintain connectivity.

Communication: Networks enable fast and efficient communication through email, instant messaging, and video conferencing, facilitating better collaboration and decision-making.

Centralized Data Management: Centralized data storage and management make it easier to back up and secure critical information.

Remote Access: Users can access resources and data remotely, providing flexibility in work locations and enhancing productivity.

Scalability: Networks can be easily scaled to accommodate the growth of an organization, allowing for the addition of new devices and users.

Security: Networks can implement security measures such as firewalls, encryption, and access controls to protect against unauthorized access and data breaches.

Internet Access: Networks provide access to the internet, opening up a vast array of information and services for users.

Types of data transmission media

Twisted Pair Cable: Consists of pairs of insulated copper wires twisted together. Commonly used for telephone lines and local area networks (LANs).

Advantages: Inexpensive, easy to install.

Disadvantages: Limited in terms of distance and bandwidth compared to other media.

Coaxial Cable: Contains a central conductor surrounded by an insulating layer, a metallic shield, and an outer insulating layer. Used for cable television and some LANs.

Advantages: Higher bandwidth than twisted pair, better for longer distances.

Disadvantages: More expensive and harder to install than twisted pair.

Fiber Optic Cable: Transmits data as pulses of light through a glass or plastic core. Ideal for high-speed, long-distance communication.

Advantages: High bandwidth, low signal loss, immune to electromagnetic interference.

Disadvantages: Expensive, requires specialized equipment, and can be fragile.

Wireless Transmission: Uses radio waves or infrared signals to transmit data without physical cables. Common in Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, and cellular networks.

Advantages: Flexibility, easy deployment, no physical constraints.

Disadvantages: Susceptible to interference, limited range, potential security concerns.

Microwave Transmission: Uses high-frequency radio waves for point-to-point communication. Often used in long-distance communication links.

Advantages: High data rates, suitable for long-distance communication.

Disadvantages: Susceptible to atmospheric interference, requires line-of-sight communication.

Satellite Transmission: Involves communication between ground stations and satellites in orbit. Commonly used for long-distance and global communication.

Advantages: Wide coverage, effective for remote locations.

Disadvantages: High initial cost, signal latency, and vulnerability to environmental factors.

Digital Computer

A digital computer is a type of computer that processes data using discrete digits or binary code (0s and 1s). It represents information in a discrete form and performs calculations through digital circuits such as transistors and logic gates.

Digital vs Analog Computers

The Central Processing Unit (CPU) is the primary component of a computer responsible for executing instructions and performing calculations. It consists of several key components, each playing a crucial role in the overall functionality of the CPU:

1. Control Unit (CU):

The control unit manages and coordinates the operations of the CPU. It fetches instructions from memory, decodes them, and directs the flow of data within the CPU and between other computer components.

2. Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU):

The ALU performs arithmetic and logical operations on data. It can handle tasks like addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, and logical comparisons. The ALU is responsible for executing the actual calculations specified by the instructions.

3. Registers:

Registers are small, high-speed storage locations within the CPU that store data temporarily during processing. The CPU uses various types of registers, including:

Program Counter (PC): Keeps track of the memory address of the next instruction to be fetched.

Instruction Register (IR): Holds the current instruction being executed.

General-Purpose Registers: Temporarily store data for arithmetic and logic operations.

Hard copy devices are peripherals that produce physical, tangible output in the form of printed documents or images. These devices convert digital information into a visible and touchable format. Examples include printers, plotters, photocopiers, etc.

Soft copy devices display digital information electronically without producing a physical, tangible output. Users interact with the information on a screen. Examples include monitors, projectors, digital cameras, etc.

Human Data Entry Devices

Human data entry devices are tools or devices that allow users to input data into a computer system.

Keyboard: A common input device with keys representing letters, numbers, and symbols. Users press keys to input text and commands.

Mouse: A pointing device used to move a cursor on a computer screen. It typically has buttons for selecting and interacting with on-screen elements.

Touchscreen: A display that can detect and respond to touch, allowing users to input data by tapping, swiping, or using gestures directly on the screen.

Digital Pen/Stylus: A pen-like device used for writing or drawing on a touchscreen or graphics tablet. It provides a more natural input method.

Graphic Tablet: A device used by artists and designers for drawing and graphic design. It consists of a stylus and a tablet that captures pen movements and pressure.

Microphone: An input device that converts sound into an electrical signal. Used for voice input, recording audio, and enabling voice commands.

ASCII is a character encoding standard used to represent text in computers and communication equipment that use text. It assigns a unique numeric value to each character, including letters, numbers, punctuation marks, and control characters. In ASCII, each character is represented by a 7-bit binary code, allowing for 128 possible characters.

For example:

• The ASCII code for the letter ‘A’ is 65.
• The ASCII code for the digit ‘0’ is 48.

Conversion of 0.2345₁₀ to (?)₂

We multiply the fractional part by 2 and consider the whole part each time i.e.

0.2345*2 = 0.469

0.469*2 = 0.938

0.938*2 = 1.876

0.876*2 = 1.752

0.752*2 = 1.504

0.504*2 = 1.008

0.008*2 = 0.016

….. and so on.

Hence,

0.2345₁₀ = (0.0011110……)₂

Wearable Computing

Wearable computing refers to the integration of computer technology into everyday items that can be worn on the body. These devices are designed to be lightweight, and portable, and provide users with easy access to computational power and information while on the move.

Key Features of Wearable Computing:

1. Portability: Wearable devices are designed to be carried or worn, allowing users to have continuous access to computing power without the need to carry a separate device.
2. Sensors: Most wearables come equipped with sensors that can monitor various aspects of the user’s environment or body. Examples include accelerometers, heart rate monitors, GPS, and more.
3. Connectivity: Wearables often have wireless connectivity features, such as Bluetooth or Wi-Fi, enabling them to sync with smartphones, tablets, or other devices. This connectivity enhances the device’s functionality and allows for data sharing.
4. User Interface: Wearables typically have a user-friendly interface, which may include touchscreens, voice recognition, or gesture controls. The interface is designed to be intuitive for quick and easy interaction.
5. Health and Fitness Tracking: Many wearables are focused on health and fitness applications, tracking metrics like steps taken, heart rate, sleep patterns, and more. They aim to promote a healthier lifestyle and provide users with insights into their well-being.
6. Smartwatches: A popular category of wearables, smartwatches offer features beyond traditional timekeeping. They can display notifications, run apps, track fitness, and often integrate with smartphones for additional functionality.
7. Augmented Reality (AR) Glasses: Some wearables, like AR glasses, overlay digital information onto the user’s physical environment, providing an enhanced and interactive experience.
8. Fashion Integration: Wearable technology is increasingly incorporating fashion elements, making devices more stylish and encouraging broader adoption.

Applications of Wearable Computing:

1. Fitness and Health Monitoring: Devices like fitness trackers and smartwatches monitor physical activity, heart rate, sleep patterns, and more.
2. Navigation: Wearables with GPS functionality can provide real-time navigation and location-based information.
3. Communication: Smartwatches and smart glasses offer hands-free communication, notifications, and quick access to messages and calls.
4. Productivity: Some wearables provide productivity tools, such as virtual assistants, allowing users to manage tasks and receive reminders.
5. Augmented Reality (AR): AR glasses overlay digital information onto the user’s view, enhancing tasks like maintenance, training, or gaming.
6. Medical Applications: Wearables are used in healthcare for monitoring patients’ vital signs, medication adherence, and other medical applications.

A database is a structured collection of data that is organized in a way to facilitate efficient storage, retrieval, and management of information. It acts as a central repository for storing and managing data, providing a structured framework for applications to interact with and manipulate the stored information.

Benefits of Using Databases

Data Organization: Databases provide a structured and organized way to store and manage large volumes of data, making it easier to find and manipulate information.

Data Integrity: Databases enforce data integrity constraints to ensure that the stored data is accurate, consistent, and adheres to predefined rules.

Data Security: Access to the data can be controlled and restricted, preventing unauthorized users from viewing or modifying sensitive information.

Data Retrieval and Analysis: Databases support efficient retrieval and analysis of data through queries, enabling users to extract valuable insights and generate reports.

Concurrency Control: Databases manage multiple users accessing the data simultaneously, ensuring that transactions are executed without conflicting with each other.

Scalability: Databases can scale to accommodate growing amounts of data and users, providing flexibility for business growth.

Data Relationships: Databases allow the establishment of relationships between different tables, facilitating the representation of complex data structures.

Data Backup and Recovery: Regular backups of the database can be performed, and mechanisms for data recovery are in place to protect against data loss.

Multimedia refers to the integration of various forms of media, such as text, graphics, audio, video, and animations, to convey information or entertain users. Below are some of its characteristics.

Integration of Multiple Media Types: Multimedia combines various media formats, including text, images, audio, video, and animations, to present information more comprehensively and engagingly.

Interactivity: Multimedia allows for user interaction, enabling users to navigate, control, and influence the content. Interactivity enhances engagement and user participation.

Scalability: Multimedia content can be adapted to different screen sizes, resolutions, and devices without losing its quality or functionality.

Compression: Multimedia files, especially those containing video and audio, often use compression techniques to reduce file size while maintaining acceptable quality. This is crucial for efficient storage and streaming.

Storage Requirements: Multimedia content can have substantial storage requirements, especially high-resolution images or videos. Adequate storage and efficient retrieval mechanisms are important considerations.

Integration with the Web: Multimedia is extensively used on the Internet, enhancing websites, online courses, and interactive applications. Web browsers support multimedia elements such as images, videos, and audio.

Accessibility: Accessibility considerations involve ensuring that multimedia content can be experienced by users with disabilities. This may include providing alternative text for images, closed captions for videos, and other accessibility features.

Cryptography is the practice and study of techniques for securing communication and data from adversaries or third parties. It involves converting information into a secure and unintelligible form (cipher) using various mathematical algorithms and keys.

A firewall is a network security device or software that monitors and controls incoming and outgoing network traffic based on predetermined security rules.  Reasons for its use:

• Firewalls enforce access policies by examining and controlling incoming and outgoing traffic. They determine which network connections are allowed or denied based on predefined rules.
• Firewalls provide a layer of defense against unauthorized access, malware, and other security threats. They block or filter malicious traffic, helping to protect the integrity of the internal network.
• Firewalls monitor network activity and log events, providing administrators with insights into potential security incidents. This monitoring helps in identifying and responding to suspicious activities.
• Firewalls prevent unauthorized access to the internal network by filtering out malicious or unauthorized traffic. This is crucial for protecting sensitive data and resources.
• Firewalls often support VPNs, allowing secure communication over untrusted networks. VPNs encrypt data, ensuring privacy and confidentiality.

Instruction Cycle

The instruction cycle, also known as the fetch-decode-execute cycle, is the fundamental process through which a computer’s Central Processing Unit (CPU) executes instructions. It consists of several steps:

1. Fetch: The CPU fetches the next instruction from the memory location specified by the program counter (PC). The instruction is transferred to the instruction register (IR).
2. Decode: The CPU decodes the instruction in the instruction register to determine the operation to be performed and the operands involved. This step translates the instruction into a series of control signals that guide the subsequent actions.
3. Execute: The CPU carries out the operation specified by the decoded instruction. This may involve arithmetic or logical calculations, data transfers, or other manipulations, depending on the type of instruction.
4. Write Back: The results of the execution are written back to the appropriate registers or memory locations. This step updates the CPU’s internal state and the system’s memory.

Big Data

Big Data refers to large and complex sets of data that exceed the capabilities of traditional data processing methods. It is characterized by the three Vs:

1. Volume: Big Data involves a massive volume of data, often ranging from terabytes to petabytes. This data can come from various sources, including social media, sensors, and transaction records.
2. Velocity: Velocity represents the speed at which new data is generated and the rate at which data moves through systems. Big Data scenarios often involve real-time or near-real-time processing to handle the continuous flow of information.
3. Variety: Big Data encompasses a variety of data types, including structured data (e.g., databases), semi-structured data (e.g., XML files), and unstructured data (e.g., text documents, social media posts). The diversity of data sources requires flexible processing approaches.